|
C |
Cannon-Bard theory
The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion
Case study
An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Catharsis
Emotional release. In psychology, the catharsis hypothesis maintains that “releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges
Central nervous system (CNS)
the brain and spinal cord
Cerebellum
The “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance
Cerebral cortex
The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center
Chromosomes
Threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes
Chunking
Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
Circadian rhythm
The biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24- hour cycle
Classical conditioning
A type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned response (UCS) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus (also called Pavlovian Conditioning)
Client-centered therapy
A humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients’ growth. (Also called person-centered therapy)
Clinical psychology
A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and trests people with psychological disorders
Cochlea
A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses
Cognition
All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering
Cognitive-behavior therapy
A popular integrated therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior)
Cognitive dissonance theory
The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes
Cognitive map
A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it
Cognitive therapy
Therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions
Collective unconscious
Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history
Collectivism
Giving priority to the goals of ones group and defining one’s identity accordingly
Color constancy
Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
Companionate love
The deep affectionate attachment we feel for those whom are lives are intertwined
Complementary and alternative medicine
Unproven health care treatments not taught widely in medical school, not used in hospitals, and not usually reimbursed by insurance companies
Computer neural networks
Computer circuits that mimic the brain’s interconnected neural cells, performing tasks such as learning to recognize visual patterns and smells
Concept
A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
Concrete operational stage
In Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events
Conditioned reinforcer
A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power though its association with a primary reinforcer
Conditioned response (CR)
In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), comes to trigger a conditioned response
Conduction hearing loss
Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
Cones
Receptor cells that are concentrates near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect finel detail and give rise to color sensations
Confirmation bias
A tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions
Conflict
A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas
Conformity
Adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard
Consciousness
Our awareness of ourselves and our environments
Conservation
The principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects
Content validity
The extent to which a test samples the behavior that is interest (such as driving test samples driving tasks)
Continuous reinforcement
Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
Control condition
The condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serces as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment
Convergence
A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object
Coronary heart disease
The clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in the United States
Corpus callosum
The large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
Correlation coefficient
A statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus, of how well either factor predicts the other
Counterconditioning
A behavior therapy procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors; based on classical conditioning
Creativity
The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas
Criterion
The behavior (such as college grades) that a test (such as the SAT) is designed to predict; thus, the measure used in defining whether the test has predictive validity
Critical period
An optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
Critical thinking
Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions
Cross-sectional study
A study in which people of different ages are compared with one another
Crystallized intelligence
One’s accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with a ge
CT (computer tomography scan)
A series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body
Culture
The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitude, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next